Promoting Products & Modal Auxilliaries
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Melati Puji Lestari
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It may be small, but this one-seater,
spotted on the streets of Tokyo, is powere
d by electricity – so it’s saving
energy while it delivers folks pizza. It appears the Japanese arm of Domino’s
Pizza has come up with a novel alternative to the traditional pizza-delivery
scooter – and they’re not the only ones.
In 2007, Domino’s Pizza in Las Vegas
tried out several three-wheeled Zap! Xebras, with Chicago’s Electric Vehicle
Company providing the cars for the trial run. And it would seem that, on top of
its environmental benefits, electricity also offers a cost-effective
alternative. At the time, Domino’s Executive Vice President of Franchise
Development Jim Stansik said, “Domino’s is committed to also being a
responsible consumer of our planet’s natural resources.”
Modal Auxiliaries
Other helping verbs, called modal auxiliaries or modals,
such as can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will,
and would, do not change form for different subjects. For instance,
try substituting any of these modal auxiliaries for can with
any of the subjects listed below.
There is also a separate section on the Modal Auxiliaries, which divides these verbs into their various meanings of
necessity, advice, ability, expectation, permission, possibility, etc., and
provides sample sentences in various tenses. See the section on Conditional Verb Forms for help with the
modal auxiliarywould. The shades of meaning among modal auxiliaries are
multifarious and complex. Most English-as-a-Second-Language textbooks will
contain at least one chapter on their usage. For more advanced students, A
University Grammar of English, by Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum,
contains an excellent, extensive analysis of modal auxiliaries.
Helping verbs or auxiliary verbs such as will,
shall, may, might, can, could, must, ought to, should, would, used to, need are
used in conjunction with main verbs to express shades of time
and mood. The combination of helping verbs with main verbs creates what are
called verb phrases or verb strings. In the
following sentence, "will have been" are helping or auxiliary verbs
and "studying" is the main verb; the whole verb string is underlined:
·
As of next August, I will have been studying chemistry
for ten years.
Students should remember that adverbs and contracted forms are
not, technically, part of the verb. In the sentence, "He has already
started." the adverbalready modifies the verb, but it is not
really part of the verb. The same is true of the 'nt in
"He hasn't started yet" (the adverb not, represented by
the contractedn't, is not part of the verb, has started).
Shall, will and forms of have, do and be combine
with main verbs to indicate time and voice. As auxiliaries, the verbs be,
have and do can change form to indicate changes in
subject and time.
·
I shall go now.
·
He had won the election.
·
They did write that novel together.
·
I am going now.
·
He was winning the election.
Uses of Shall and Will and Should
In England, shall is used to express the simple
future for first person I and we, as in
"Shall we meet by the river?" Will would be used in
the simple future for all other persons. Using will in the
first person would express determination on the part of the speaker, as in
"We will finish this project by tonight, by golly!" Usingshall in
second and third persons would indicate some kind of promise about the subject,
as in "This shall be revealed to you in good time." This usage is
certainly acceptable in the U.S., although shall is used far
less frequently. The distinction between the two is often obscured by the
contraction 'll, which is the same for both verbs.
In the United States, we seldom use shall for anything
other than polite questions (suggesting an element of permission) in the
first-person:
·
"Shall we go now?"
·
"Shall I call a doctor for you?"
(In the second sentence, many writers would use should instead,
although shouldis somewhat more tentative than shall.) In
the U.S., to express the future tense, the verb will is used
in all other cases.
Shall is often used in formal situations (legal or legalistic
documents, minutes to meetings, etc.) to express obligation, even
with third-person and second-person constructions:
·
The board of directors shall be responsible for payment to
stockholders.
·
The college president shall report financial shortfalls to the
executive director each semester."
Should is usually replaced, nowadays, by would. It is
still used, however, to mean "ought to" as in
·
You really shouldn't do that.
·
If you think that was amazing, you should have seen it last
night.
In British English and very formal American English, one is apt
to hear or readshould with the first-person pronouns in expressions
of liking such as "I should prefer iced tea" and in tentative
expressions of opinion such as
·
I should imagine they'll vote Conservative.
I should have thought so.
Uses of Do, Does and Did
In the simple present tense, do will function
as an auxiliary to express the negative and to ask questions. (Does,
however, is substituted for third-person, singular subjects in the present
tense. The past tense did works with all persons, singular and
plural.)
·
I don't study at night.
·
She doesn't work here anymore.
·
Do you attend this school?
·
Does he work here?
These verbs also work as "short answers," with the
main verb omitted.
·
Does she work here? No, she doesn't work here.
With "yes-no" questions, the form of do goes
in front of the subject and the main verb comes after the subject:
·
Did your grandmother know Truman?
·
Do wildflowers grow in your back yard?
Forms of do are useful in expressing similarity
and differences in conjunction with so and neither.
·
My wife hates spinach and so does my son.
·
My wife doesn't like spinach; neither do I.
Do is also helpful because it means you don't have to repeat
the verb:
·
Larry excelled in language studies; so did his
brother.
·
Raoul studies as hard as his sister does.
The so-called emphatic do has many uses in
English.
a.
To add emphasis to an entire sentence: "He does like
spinach. He really does!"
b.
To add emphasis to an imperative: "Do come
in." (actually softens the command)
c.
To add emphasis to a frequency adverb: "He never did understand
his father." "She always does manage to hurt her
mother's feelings."
d.
To contradict a negative statement: "You didn't do your
homework, did you?" "Oh, but I did finish it."
e.
To ask a clarifying question about a previous negative
statement: "Ridwell didn't take the tools." "Then who did take
the tools?"
f.
To indicate a strong concession: "Although the Clintons
denied any wrong-doing, they did return some of the
gifts."
In the absence of other modal auxiliaries, a form of do is
used in question and negative constructions known as the get passive:
·
Did Rinaldo get selected by the committee?
·
The audience didn't get riled up by the politician.
Uses of Have, Has and Had
Forms of the verb to have are used to create
tenses known as the present perfect and past perfect.
The perfect tenses indicate that something has happened in the past; the
present perfect indicating that something happened and might be continuing to
happen, the past perfect indicating that something happened prior to something
else happening. (That sounds worse than it really is!) See the section on Verb Tenses in the Active Voice for further
explanation; also review material in the Directory of English Tenses.
To have is also in combination with other modal verbs to express
probability and possibility in the past.
·
As an affirmative statement, to have can
express how certain you are that something happened (when combined with an
appropriate modal + have + a past participle): "Georgia
must have left already." "Clinton might have known about the
gifts." "They may have voted already."
·
As a negative statement, a modal is combined with not + have +
a past participle to express how certain you are that something did not happen:
"Clinton might not have known about the gifts." "I may not have
been there at the time of the crime."
·
To ask about possibility or probability in the past, a modal is
combined with the subject + have + past participle:
"Could Clinton have known about the gifts?"
·
For short answers, a modal is combined with have:
"Did Clinton know about this?" "I don't know. He may have."
"The evidence is pretty positive. He must have."
To have (sometimes combined with to get) is used to
express a logical inference:
·
It's been raining all week; the basement has to be flooded by
now.
·
He hit his head on the doorway. He has got to be over seven feet
tall!
Have is often combined with an infinitive to form an auxiliary whose
meaning is similar to "must."
·
I have to have a car like that!
·
She has to pay her own tuition at college.
·
He has to have been the first student to try that.
1. Uses of Can and Could
A. The modal auxiliary can is used
·
to express ability (in the sense of being able to do something
or knowing how to do something): He can speak Spanish but he can't write it
very well.
·
to expression permission (in the sense of being allowed or
permitted to do something):
Can I talk to my friends in the library waiting room? (Note that can is less formal than may. Also, some writers will object to the use of canin this context.)
Can I talk to my friends in the library waiting room? (Note that can is less formal than may. Also, some writers will object to the use of canin this context.)
·
to express theoretical possibility: American automobile makers
can make better cars if they think there's a profit in it.
B. The modal auxiliary could is used
·
to express an ability in the past:
I could always beat you at tennis when we were kids.
·
to express past or future permission:
Could I bury my cat in your back yard?
·
to express present possibility:
We could always spend the afternoon just sitting around talking.
·
to express possibility or ability in contingent circumstances:
If he studied harder, he could pass this course.
In expressing ability, can and could frequently
also imply willingness: Can you help me with my homework?
2. Can versus May
Whether the auxiliary verb can can be used to
express permission or not — "Can I leave the room now?" ["I
don't know if you can, but you may."] — depends on the level of formality
of your text or situation. As Theodore Bernstein puts it in The Careful
Writer, "a writer who is attentive to the proprieties will
preserve the traditional distinction: can for ability or power
to do something, may for permission to do it.
The question is at what level can you safely ignore the
"proprieties." Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, tenth edition, says the
battle is over and cancan be used in virtually any situation to
express or ask for permission. Most authorities, however, recommend a stricter
adherence to the distinction, at least in formal situations.
3. Uses of May and Might
Two of the more troublesome modal auxiliaries are may and might.
When used in the context of granting or seeking permission, might is
the past tense of may.Might is considerably more
tentative than may.
·
May I leave class early?
·
If I've finished all my work and I'm really quiet, might I leave
early?
In the context of expressing possibility, may and might are
interchangeable present and future forms and might + have +
past participle is the past form:
·
She might be my advisor next semester.
·
She may be my advisor next semester.
·
She might have advised me not to take biology.
Avoid confusing the sense of possibility in may with
the implication of might,that a hypothetical situation has not in
fact occurred. For instance, let's say there's been a helicopter crash at the
airport. In his initial report, before all the facts are gathered, a newscaster
could say that the pilot "may have been injured." After
we discover that the pilot is in fact all right, the newscaster can now say
that the pilot "might have been injured" because it is a
hypothetical situation that has not occurred. Another example: a body had been
identified after much work by a detective. It was reported that "without
this painstaking work, the body may have remained
unidentified." Since the body was, in fact, identified, might is
clearly called for.
4. Uses of Will and Would
In certain contexts, will and would are
virtually interchangeable, but there are differences. Notice that the
contracted form 'll is very frequently used for will.
Will can be used to express willingness:
·
I'll wash the dishes if you dry.
·
We're going to the movies. Will you join us?
It can also express intention (especially in the first person):
·
I'll do my exercises later on.
and prediction:
·
specific: The meeting will be over soon.
·
timeless: Humidity will ruin my hairdo.
·
habitual: The river will overflow its banks every spring.
Would can also be used to express willingness:
·
Would you please take off your hat?
It can also express insistence (rather rare, and with a strong
stress on the word "would"):
·
Now you've ruined everything. You would act
that way.
and characteristic activity:
·
customary: After work, he would walk to his home in West
Hartford.
·
typical (casual): She would cause the whole family to be late,
every time.
In a main clause, would can express a
hypothetical meaning:
·
My cocker spaniel would weigh a ton if I let her eat what she
wants.
Finally, would can express a sense of
probability:
·
I hear a whistle. That would be the five o'clock train.
5. Uses of Used to
The auxiliary verb construction used to is used
to express an action that took place in the past, perhaps customarily, but now
that action no longer customarily takes place:
·
We used to take long vacation trips with the whole family.
The spelling of this verb is a problem for some people because
the "-ed" ending quite naturally disappears in speaking: "We
yoostoo take long trips." But it ought not to disappear in writing. There
are exceptions, though. When the auxiliary is combined with another
auxiliary, did, the past tense is carried by the new auxiliary
and the "-ed" ending is dropped. This will often happen in the
interrogative:
·
Didn't you use to go jogging every morning before breakfast?
·
It didn't use to be that way.
Used to can also be used to convey the sense of being accustomed
to or familiar with something:
·
The tire factory down the road really stinks, but we're used to
it by now.
·
I like these old sneakers; I'm used to them.
Used to is best reserved for colloquial usage; it has no place in
formal or academic text.
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